![]() ![]() ![]() In only the case of MgO and ZnO, the unambiguous presence of Zn and Mg could be observed inside the cells.Įscherichia coli Nanoparticles SEM TEM. Finally, we propose modified sample preparation and characterization protocols for comprehensive and conclusive investigations of nanomaterial-cell interactions using electron microscopy and for obtaining clear and unambiguous revelation whether the nanomaterials studied penetrate the cells or accumulate at the cell membranes. For each of those, we identify causes of the observed problems and suggest alternative sample preparation protocols to avoid artifacts arising from the sample preparation, which is essential for correct interpretation of the obtained images and drawing correct conclusions on cell-nanomaterial interactions. A safe price range would be 50,000 to 200,000 for conventional tabletop scanning electron microscopes (SEMs), or up to a million dollars for the higher-end ones, while transmission electron microscopes (TEMs) can easily go up for tens of millions of dollars. For the other three nanomaterials, different artifacts are observed. They are also the most powerful microscopic tool available to-date, capable of producing high-resolution, detailed images 1 nanometer in size. TEMs are costly, large, cumbersome instruments that require special housing and maintenance. Only in the case of TiO 2 do we observe only the known issues of nanomaterial-independent generation of anomalous deposits due to exceptional chemical stability of this material. A Transmission Electron Microscope produces images via the interaction of electrons with a sample. While the common protocols for some nanomaterials result only in known issues of nanomaterial-independent generation of anomalous deposits due to fixation and staining, for others, there are reactions between the nanomaterial and chemicals used for post-fixation or staining. We investigated transmission electron microscopy artifacts obtained using standard sample preparation protocols applied to the investigation of Escherichia coli cells exposed to common nanomaterials, such as TiO 2, Ag, ZnO, and MgO. ![]()
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